Recent research is supporting the pivotal role motivation plays in learning. It is like the motor underneath a boat the drives its movement forward. The driver can choose the direction but the force from the motor propels it forward into action. Research on motivation has evolved from biological drives to internalized cognitions. This paper will review some of the historical and contemporary theories while describing how the model works.
Two early theories on motivation were drive theory and humanistic theory. In drive theory, internal forces drove the body to maintain homeostasis or balance. When deprivation of a physiological need occurred with, then a drive would be activated that would make the person respond. When the need was met then the drive would subside. Woodworth (1927) conducted much of this research with laboratory animals. He would deprive them of food or water and assess their behaviors. Hull (1943) broadened this theory to include secondary reinforces. This theory could explain why a student who is sleep deprived is unable to focus and concentrate on his studies. His body has activated the need for sleep and he will need to respond (fall asleep in class perhaps) before he can be physically ready to learn again. However, this theory does not provide an adequate explanation for long-term goals and academic motivation (Schunk, 2012).
Maslow (1968), through his Hierarchy of Needs, presented the second early theory of motivation. This theory also included physiological needs at the base along with safety needs. Once these needs are met then other needs emerge, moving up the hierarchy, to belongingness, esteem and the final self-actualization at the top (Schunk, 2012). This model supports the need for supportive environments for learners because having their physiological and safety needs met allows them to develop and engage in the learning more deeply. For this reason, it is important to reduce violence and bullying in our schools to zero tolerance.
Now, moving onto some of the more contemporary theories of motivation, three of these are Attribution theory, Social Cognitive theory and Goal theory. Attribution theory focuses on how people perceive the outcomes of their behaviors and those of others. Attributions connect to motivations because they influence our beliefs, emotions, and behaviors. Rotter (1966) has conducted research on locus of control as being either internal or external. Students with a more internal locus of control typically take more responsibility for their behavior and show more effort. Some research supports that attributions may be influenced by gender and ethnic backgrounds (Schunk, 2012). Teachers can support students in developing more internalized locus of control attributions.
Social cognitive theory also offers a theory on motivation in which goals and expectations are the most important learning mechanisms. Learners act in ways they believe will achieve their goals through goal-setting behavior. Reinforcement in the form of evaluation helps learners to stay on track in attaining their goals. Along with this, internal goal behavior there is also external social comparison. Festinger (1954) has conducted research and hypothesized that people evaluate their behavior through comparing with others and creating self-evaluations. Teachers can leverage social comparison to improve classroom behavior by providing positive social attention for appropriate behavior (Schunk, 2012).
The last motivational theory represents a relatively new conception of human motivation. Goal theory is used to predict and explain student achievement behaviors. Goal orientations have been identified through research as reasons why students engage in academic tasks. Learning goals are what the student needs to acquire and performance goals are what the student needs to complete. Mindsets can reflect the beliefs a student has of one’s qualities and abilities. Research supports that a learning-goal orientation facilitates achievement and skill acquisition more so than a performance-goal orientation. Goal theory and research suggest that teachers can play a role in developing a productive learning goal orientation by helping students change their beliefs about their ability limits and improve their motivation (Schunk, 2011).
Early theories of motivation focused on biological needs that human behavior was driven to balance. Later theories developed that included more internal factors such as self-actualization, internal locus of control, personal goals, and social comparison. The most recent theory, Goal theory, incorporates these ideas with a special focus on student achievement and trying to understand that variables that can be used to explain and predict learner behavior. In a short span of time our understanding of motivation has greatly expanded… just imagine what could come next if we just continue to stay motivated!
Reference
Schunk, D.H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Boston: Pearson.