Introduction/Background to Modeling
Modeling is a critical theoretical component of the social cognitive theory. It includes the behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes derived from observing one or more models. This theory developed from the theories of William James, Watson, Skinner and Piaget related to instinctive behavior. These connections and differences can be seen in Table 1. It is based on the historical perspectives of William James’ instinct, Piaget’s development of schemas and Skinner’s operant conditioning of the stimulus and response (Schunk, 2012). Albert Bandura introduced his ideas in 1977 in his book Social Learning Theory. He took Skinner’s operant conditioning theory a step further and added cognitive internal cognitive processing (McLeod, Bandura… 2011).
Theory Epistemology of Modeling
Bandura identified three key functions of modeling behavior. These are response facilitation, inhibition/dishibitation, and observational learning. Observational learning through modeling occurs when the observer is able to display a new pattern of behavior that was not there before seeing the modeled behaviors. Bandura also identified four underlying processes of observational learning. These are attention, retention, production, and motivation. Motivation is critical for observational learning in regards to teaching and education (Schunk, 2012)
Bandura is regarded as the key contributor to social learning theory. His famous Bobo Doll study in 1961 provided evidence to support his theory. His findings support that that aggression can be acquired through observation and imitation (McLeod, Bobo…, 2010). Barry Zimmerman has also contributed with Bandura and extended the research of social learning theory. They have both published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology and American Educational Research.
Learning Process with Modeling
In Bandura’s theory of modeling, learning occurs when others observe a model and then imitate that same behavior. Learning occurs vicariously through a social environment. Attention is first given to a specific model performing a specific behavior and then information is acquired through encoding which results in the learner copying the same behavior. After this imitated behavior occurs either reinforcement or punishment is given that can either strengthen or decrease the learned behavior (Schunk, 2012). An example of this that fits this learning theory is when a teacher models prosocial skills to her students by showing the children how to respond in a caring, sympathetic way to a child who has hurt himself. Then, one of these children copies this same behavior when while playing on the swings one of their classmates gets hurt and he/she shows the same sympathetic behavior as the teacher modeled.
Bandura’s theory of modeling can be rivaled by some other past and present theories. Although his theory reflects parts of Skinner’s operant conditioning – there are some differences Skinner would contend with. He might rival that reinforcement needs to always be delivered to continue shaping this new response class (Schunk, 2012). With the example of responding to the hurt child, Skinner would argue that the teacher always needs to provide social praise for helping a classmate and if the child was alone he/she would be less likely to help the other child when no one is around to see or when the reinforcement is not available.
Another rival to Bandura’s modeling is neuroscience research that theorizes the presence of mirror neurons in the brain. Mirror neurons are a type of brain cell that respond equally when we perform an action and when we witness someone else perform the same action. Mirror neurons for manipulation fire both when the animal manipulates an object in a specific way and when it sees another animal (or the experimenter) perform an action that is more or less similar. Recent neuroimaging data indicate that the adult human brain is endowed with a "mirror neuron system," putatively containing mirror neurons and other neurons, for matching the observation and execution of actions (Winerman, 2005). Mirror neurons may serve action recognition in monkeys as well as humans, whereas their putative role in imitation and language may be realized in human but not in monkey. For this theory, the situation with the teacher and the child would be explained that by seeing the teacher model sympathetic behaviors this triggered mirror neurons in the child’s brain to copy the same behavior.
For the situation of the teacher and the child, Bandura’s theory of modeling performs best in explaining this new behavior shown by the child. Skinner’s falls short because even with no reinforcement children will copy an adults behaviors. The mirror neurons is still a relatively new theory and does to explain the extent of the new behavior in humans. Bandura’s theory of modeling explains how a child can see a behavior and then cognitively process it to then do in other environments with and without the original model and reinforcement present.
Instructional Implications of Modeling
Modeling provides additional context for how we can construct the most conducive learning environments. According to this theory, the environment should contain role models demonstrating the behaviors that we want to teach, high motivation for learning, and strong positive reinforcement. Ultimately, we control what learners see and then do. This is very powerful in teaching prosocial behaviors and can be leveraged from many different approaches. The environment can be real or imagined. Fantasy characters such as comic books can model prosocial behaviors such as good choices to make when you feel angry. In using social influences, pairing students through Peer-Assisted Learning, tutoring and mentoring can also be used in instruction and teaching prosocial behaviors. Skinner and mirror neurons theories provide other explanations for these same behaviors, however, the both fall short in supporting the power modeling has in learning new behaviors. Bandera’s theory of modeling has infiltrated into all aspects of our lives – whether we are aware or not – we are learning from models everyday.
References
McLeod, S. A. (2011). Bandura - Social Learning Theory. Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
McLeod, S. A. (2011). Bobo Doll Experiment. Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html
Oztop, E., Kawato, M. & Arib, M.A. (2013). Mirror neurons: Functions, mechanisms,
and models. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23063951
Schunk, D.H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Boston: Pearson.
Winerman, L. (2005). The mind’s mirror. Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct05/mirror.aspx