Epistemological Review of Constructivism Perspective: Vygotsky’s Theory
Introduction/Background to Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky’s theory is considered to be a constructivist theory because it focuses on how learners construct knowledge through social interaction and cognitive development. Lev Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896. His contribution to learning theory began when he presented a paper in opposition to introspection, Pavlov’s conditioned reflexes and behaviorism’s emphasis on just environmental influences. He proposed that humans are different from animals because we have the capacity to alter our environment. His views were influenced by Russian politics and reflected his strong Marxist beliefs. His theory focused on language and social interaction and provided a new way to explain human thoughts. His theory of development is similar to Piaget’s stages of children’s cognitive development but with more emphasis on social interaction. Both Vygotsky and Piaget believed in an active construction of knowledge and not passivity in learners. Their theories also provided explanations for more advanced learning skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving. Vygotsky explained his theory through his writings, which were published after his death. They have since been widely translated and circulated, however, various interpretations of his theory also exist (Schunk, 2012). Table 1 highlights the connections and theoretical differences along the timeline of learning theories.
Epistemology of Vygotsky’s Theory
The central emphasis of Vygotsky’s theory is on socially meaningful activity by blending environmental influence with human consciousness. His theory focused on three key interactions: interpersonal, cultural-historical and individual factors. A stronger focus has been placed on the interpersonal or social factors of his theory. According to Vygotsky, our environment provides “tools” that are cultural objects, language and social institutions. Social interactions connect the three influences on development and cognitive change results from using the cultural tools while internalizing and mentally transforming the social interactions. He went as far as to say that all higher mental functions originated in the social environment and the most influential process is language (Schunk, 2012). His theory has contributed to the instructional approach that learner’s cultures need to be valued and given consideration.
Another key concept of Vygotsky’s theory is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This is the distance between the actual developmental level and the level of potential development. It represents what a student is capable of learning in the optimal learning conditions and demonstrates a student’s readiness or intellectual level (Schunk, 2012). It supports that learning and development are related and provides strategies on how to increase learning levels for students.
Although Vygotsky’s writings, such as Thought and Language (1962) and Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (1978), were mostly published after his death, his theory continues to provide a foundation for human development research. Current academic journals that publish research today are Developmental Psychology and Child Development.
Learning Process with Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky’s theory is a constructivist perspective of learning that places a strong emphasis on the social environment and the active learner as the facilitators of development and learning. Children transform their experiences based on their knowledge and characteristics to reorganize their mental structures. Learning occurs through interaction with the environment and active mental processing. Cognitive development builds through social interactions and the interaction with cultural tools. In addition, cognitive change occurs in ZPD when teacher and learner share cultural tools and this interaction produces an internal cognitive change in the learner (Schunk 2012). Teachers can use ZPD to provide instructional scaffolding to English Language Learners (ELL) in developing cognitive skills in the new cultural classroom.
Skinner and Vygotsky came together on the idea of external factors influencing behavior and learning. However, Skinner would not have agreed about the internal cognitive development that Vygotsky’s theory has expanded on. Skinner might have disagreed that sharing cultural objects produces learned behaviors. He might support that reinforcements and reactions to the environment are the same across all cultures – just like across different animal species. For this reason, he would probably not support instructional scaffolding or differential instruction of ELLs. Additionally, Bandura would agree with Vygotsky that teachers play a central role in the cognitive development of learners but would only explain it through his theory of modeling. He might not agree with Vygotsky that students can develop cognitive skills through non-modeled interactions such as language, signs and symbols. Vygotsky’s theory explains how ELL students’ learning can be influenced by cultural factors and how their cognitive development can be influenced beyond their cultural models.
Instructional Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky’s theory can provide many instructional opportunities that can be used to support the learning of ELL students. Instructional scaffolding is associated with Vygotsky’s ZPD. One example of how to scaffold instruction for ELLs is to differentiate learning tasks and materials while providing a variety of verbal and academic supports, from both teacher and more skilled peers, so that students are able to meaningfully engage in content area learning and acquire the necessary language and academic skills necessary for independent learning (DelliCarpini, 2006). Although Skinner’s theory includes the influence of environmental factors it does not include the cognitive development that ELLs acquire through social interactions. Bandura’s theory includes interaction with models as factors for cognitive development but Vygotsky also includes learning through language and cultural signs and symbols. The intense level of learning through which ELLs assimilate and develop new cultural resources is best explained by Vygotsky’s principles because it includes the development of higher cognitive and problem-solving skills through environmental factors, modeling and social interactions.
References
Schunk, D.H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Boston: Pearson.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.